Graphite is a naturally occurring crystalline form of carbon, characterized by a layered, planar structure where carbon atoms are arranged in hexagonal sheets. Within these sheets, strong covalent bonds provide excellent in-plane strength and conductivity, while the weak van der Waals forces between the layers allow them to slide easily over one another. This unique atomic structure grants graphite its defining properties: it is an excellent conductor of electricity and heat, a superb solid lubricant, and is highly refractory (resistant to heat and chemical attack). It is also one of the softest known minerals. Natural graphite is mined, while synthetic graphite is produced by heating carbonaceous materials like petroleum coke to extremely high temperatures (up to 3000°C) in an inert atmosphere, a process called graphitization.

The applications for graphite are diverse and critical to both traditional and advanced technologies. Its most significant use is in refractories for steelmaking ladles and…